Post A Comment On This Essay Essays - Law, Reproductive Rights

Post a comment on this essay Read other users' comments Print this essay New Essays | Popular Essays | Submit an Essay Index: Social Issues: Abortion Abortion In Roe et al. v. Wade District Attorney of Dallas County (1973), one of the most controversial cases in recent history, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down all state laws that limit a woman's right to an abortion during the first three months of pregnancy. Justices Rehnquist and White dissented. Mr. Justice Blackmun delivered the opinion of the Court.... This Texas federal appeal and its Georgia companion, Doe v. Bolton, post, p. 179, present constitutional challenges to state criminal abortion legislation. The Texas statutes under attack here are typical of those that have been in effect in many States for approximately a century. The Georgia statutes, in contrast, have a modern cast and are a legislative product that, to an extent at least, obviously reflects the influences of recent attitudinal change, of advancing medical knowledge and techniques, and of new thinking about an old issue. We forthwith acknowledge our awareness of the sensitive and emotional nature of the abortion controversy, of the vigourous opposing views, even among physicians, and of the deep and seemingly absolute convictions that the subject inspires. One's philosophy, one's experiences, one's exposure to the raw edges of human existence, one's religious training, one's attitudes toward life and family and their values, and the moral standards one establishes and seeks to observe, are all likely to influence and to color one's thinking and conclusions about abortion.... The Texas statutes that concern us here are Arts. 1191-1194 and 1196 of the State's Penal Code. These make it a crime to procure an abortion, as therein defined, or to attempt one, except with respect to an abortion procured or attempted by medical advice for the purpose of saving the life of the mother. Similar statutes are in existence in a majority of the States. Texas first enacted a criminal abortion statute in 1854. Texas Laws 1854, c. 49, Sec. 1, set forth in 3 H. Gammel, Laws of Texas 1502 (1898). This was soon modified into language that has remained substantially unchanged to the present time.... Jane Roe, a single woman who was residing in Dallas County, Texas, instituted this federal action in March 1970 against the District Attorney of the county. She sought a declaratory judgment that the Texas criminal abortion statutes were unconstitutional on their face, and an injunction restraining the defendant from enforcing the statutes. Roe alleged that she was unmarried and pregnant; that she wished to terminate her pregnancy by an abortion performed by a competent, licensed physician, under safe, clinical conditions; that she was unable to get a legal abortion in Texas because her life did not appear to be threatened by the continuation of her pregnancy; and that she could not afford to travel to another jurisdiction in order to secure a legal abortion under safe conditions. She claimed that the Texas statutes were unconstitutionally vague and that they abridged her right of personal privacy, protected by the First, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and Fourteenth Amendments. By an amendment to her complaint Roe purported to sue on behalf of herself and all other women similarly situated.... We are next confronted with issues of justiciability, standing, and abstention. Have Roe and the Does established that personal stake in the outcome of the controversy, Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186, 204 (1962), that insures that the dispute sought to be adjudicated will be presented in an adversary context and in a form historically viewed as capable of judicial resolution,... The usual rule in federal cases is that an actual controversy must exist at stages of appellate or certiorari review, and not simply at the date the action is initiated... But when, as here, pregnancy is a significant fact in the litigation, the normal 266-day human gestation period is so short that the pregnancy will come to term before the usual appellate process is complete. If that termination makes a case moot, pregnancy litigation seldom will survive much beyond the trial stage, and appellate review will be effectively denied. Our law should not be that rigid.... We, therefore, agree with the District Court that Jane Roe had standing to undertake this litigation, that she presented a justiciable controversy, and that the termination of her 1970 pregnancy has not rendered her case moot.... The principal thrust of appellant's attack on the Texas statutes is that they improperly invade a right, said to be possessed by the pregnant woman,

Reflection on mental health nursing Essay Essay Example

Reflection on mental health nursing Essay Essay Example Reflection on mental health nursing Essay Essay Reflection on mental health nursing Essay Essay This is a brooding essay based on my attending at a multidisciplinary squad ( MDT ) meeting whilst on my two-week arrangement at a local mental wellness twenty-four hours infirmary. The purpose of this essay is to discourse the importance of the multidisciplinary squad within the mental wellness environment and discuss factors that can act upon the success or failure of multidisciplinary squads. Mental wellness squads by and large comprise of head-shrinkers. clinical psychologists. nurses. occupational healers and societal workers. but other healers such as household healers. clinical psychologists and counselors might besides go involved in the attention of the patient ( Perkins A ; Repper 1998 ) . Multidiscipline engagement is of import within mental wellness nursing as people with mental wellness jobs have multiple demands. so a assortment of expertness is required to run into the demands of these people ( Darby et al 1999 ) . Multidisciplinary mental wellness squads can been defined as: â€Å"A group of practicians with different professional preparation. employed by more than one bureau. who meet on a regular basis to organize their work supplying services to one or more clients in a defined area† ( Ovretveit. 1993: 9 cited in Onyett 2003 ) The advantage of a multidisciplinary squad attack is that all professionals work together by roll uping the facts and by conveying information together. to obtain as complete a position as possible of the jobs of each single patient. In making this they are able to do certain that the proper scope of interventions are used in a decently planned manner ( Onyett 2003 ) . One of the disadvantages of a multidisciplinary squad is that jobs can be encountered when different professionals work together. there can be ill-defined ends. deficiency of way and hapless leading ( Darby et al 1999 ) . In order to construction this contemplation I have chosen Gibbs ( 1988 ) as the theoretical account to assist with my brooding procedure. This theoretical account comprises of a procedure that helps the single expression at a state of affairs and believe about their ideas and feelings at the clip of the incident. Reflective accomplishments help us to believe about what could hold been done. so that if a similar state of affairs occurs once more the experience gained can be used to cover with the state of affairs in a professional mode ( Burns et al 1997 ) . To enable me to utilize this state of affairs for my contemplation the patient will be referred to as â€Å"Kate† . This is in order that her existent name is protected and that confidentially maintained in line with the NMC ( 2002 ) Code of Professional Conduct. Description Kate is a 66-year-old lady. retired from her occupation as a nurse 10 old ages ago. She has lived entirely since the decease of her hubby 7 old ages ago. and has one really supportive boy who lives locally and visits 2-3 times a hebdomad. Kate was referred to the infirmary by her physician after showing with an 18-month history of memory jobs and it was decided that she should go to the twenty-four hours infirmary for a period of six hebdomads to be assessed and to be involved in curative activities whilst at that place. Whilst go toing the twenty-four hours infirmary she was observed. and found to be insistent with obvious grounds of fiction. really disorientated. with hapless concentration and really hapless short-run memory. The adviser asked the mental wellness nurses to measure Kate and trials indicated that she may be enduring from a moderate grade of dementedness. Dementia is a mental upset caused by structural alterations in the encephalon and affects about 10 per cent of people aged over 65 ( Newell A ; Gournay 2000 ) . An MDT meeting was so arranged to discourse the bundle of attention needed for this lady. to enable her to go on populating safely in her ain place. The Consultant chaired the meeting by conveying the squad to the attending of Kate’s medical history and the jobs herself and boy had been sing. He felt she would profit from medicine to assist her memory jobs. The community psychiatric nurse ( CPN ) so discussed to the squad the concerns of Kates boy. he had informed her that Kate is rolling at inappropriate times of twenty-four hours and seldom retrieving to eat. she is besides on a regular basis burying to turn off the lights-outs and gas contraptions in the house. He is really concerned for the safety of his female parent. The occupational healer suggested she visit to measure Kate’s safety in her place refering these issues. The societal worker discussed the possibility of place carers but the mental wellness nurse who knows Kate good. Tells of her concerns that Kate is neer at place. The societal worker suggested a instance meeting affecting the boy who could perchance guarantee that his female parent takes her medicine on a regular basis and to seek and guarantee that she remains at place until the carers arrive. It was agreed that if this did non work or was unsuitable for Kate or her boy. any jobs identified could be discussed and resolved at a future MDT meeting. Feelingss I felt really comfy and really accepted within the MDT meeting. The ambiance was friendly and relaxed and everybody at that place seemed to hold something to lend. Everyone was encouraged to take part and I felt that I could hold contributed to the treatment if I had known the patient better. I feel they would hold listened to my thoughts and non dismissed them due to me being a pupil. Everybody communicated good with each other and had the best involvements of Kate in head and so treatments were made until the best result was achieved for her. This demonstrates the benefit and importance of communicating within a squad and how all parts within meetings should be valued ( Perkins A ; Repper 1998 ) . Evaluation There are many positive facets of this peculiar MDT they all worked good together as a squad with the same end in head. The squad discussed all the different options available and all the jobs that might originate and looked to the hereafter to discourse farther meetings to measure if the bundle of attention put into topographic point was suited. I found it really interesting to see a MDT in action and witness the teamwork between different subjects. With the aid and support provided by her boy and the MDT Kate will hopefully be able to stay life in her ain place. safely for every bit long as possible. The dissatisfactory facet of this instance is that if Kate is neer at place when the CPN. and carers arrive this can hold a negative impact on the bundle of attention put in topographic point. and residential attention may necessitate to be considered at a ulterior day of the month. Analysis This peculiar mental wellness squad worked highly good together. the adviser chaired the meeting and was the leader of the meeting. Onyett ( 2003 ) suggests that the presence of a clear squad leader is associated with squad effectivity. The NMC ( 2002 ) provinces than nurses should work in a collaborative mode with healthcare professionals and others involved in supplying the attention for the patient. and recognise and esteem their peculiar parts within the attention squad. The instance of Kate is grounds of a multidisciplinary squad and wellness professionals working together and interrupting down barriers to supply the right bundle of attention for this person. Kate’s unwellness non merely affects her but besides members of her household who are seeking their best to back up her. Darby et Al ( 1999 ) states that theses troubles can hold a profound impact non merely on the life of the person who experiences them. but besides on the lives of those around them. The MDT were to the full cognizant of this and so arranged a instance meeting with the boy so that all the different options could be discussed. Kate wanders off entirely unaware of the clip of twenty-four hours or dark. Whilst person with dementedness rolling off and acquiring lost on a cold dark is clearly in danger. small can be done to do a individual stay indoors against their wants. Perkins A ; Repper ( 1998 ) discusses the hard balance between the wants. demands and rights of the single to populate as they wish and professional codifications of behavior which impose upon the wellness professionals a â€Å"duty of care† to guarantee the safety of the person. Decision It can be seen from this MDT meeting that clear leading and good communicating between members of the squad is critical to guarantee they come together with a clear apprehension of the results to be achieved and every bit equipped with all the information available to get the better of patients’ single jobs. Team working signifiers the footing of mental wellness nursing and can act upon the success or failure of the attention and intervention the patient receives. This effectual squad has the possible to accomplish positive results for both Kate and her boy now and in the hereafter if needed. Action program If I find myself in this type of state of affairs once more. I would be more confident in take parting in the MDT meeting. I have learnt from this state of affairs that good teamwork and communicating between each other is critical to the result of the bundle of attention decided. This contemplation has highlighted the demand to increase my cognition and apprehension of the multidisciplinary squad and the importance of the results of these meetings and how they can impact the patients and family’s quality of life. which will assist me to believe really carefully about the determinations I make refering patients attention in the hereafter. I will turn to this larning demand by working closely with my wise man and other multidisciplinary squad members and by reading relevant literature. As a pupil I am cognizant that there is a batch more to larn and with more clip and experience and with the aid of my wise mans I will be able to increase my cognition and apprehension of how dif ferent subjects work together. Mentions Burns. S. Bulman. C. Palmer. A. ( 1997 ) Reflective Practice in Nursing – The growing of the professional practician. London: Blackwell Science. Darby. S. Marr. J. Crump. A Scurfield. M ( 1999 ) Older Peoples. Nursing A ; Mental Health. Oxford: Buterworth-Heinemann. Gibbs. G ( 1988 ) Learning by Making. A usher to instruction and larning methods. Cheltenham: The Geography Discipline Network. ( GDN ) . Newell. R. Gournay. K ( 2000 ) Mental Health Nursing – An grounds based attack. London: Churchill Livingstone. Nursing and Midwifery Council ( 2002 ) Code of Professional Conduct: London Onyett. S. ( 2003 ) Teamworking in Mental Health. Bristol: Palgrave Macmillan. Perkins. R. Repper. J. ( 1998 ) Dilemmas in Community Mental Health. Oxon: Radcliff Medical Press Ltd.

Analyzing Jesus Christ in the Gospels vis-a-vis Galilean Lifestyle

Analyzing Jesus Christ in the Gospels vis-a-vis Galilean Lifestyle AUTHORS NOTE: The following paper received first place at the 2005 Concordia University Presidents Showcase, Tier Two, and was presented at the Southern California Conference on Undergraduate Research at the University of California, Riverside. Jesus in Context: The Influence of the Galilee Region on the Life and Ministry of Jesus and His Followers Introduction: History, Faith, and the Cultural Context of Jesus of Nazareth According to the popular periodical Newsweek, 93 percent of Americans believe that Jesus of Nazareth existed as a historical figure (The Christmas Miracle), yet scholars continue to struggle with the question of how best to understand the founder of the worlds largest religion. Assuming that Jesus lived in a definite historical period, one of the most significant factors in developing an accurate portrait of Jesus life is an understanding of the cultural setting in which he lived. Due to the lack of a common foundation on which to build a thesis for such a portrait, however, scholars often clash over the specifics of the major influences that contributed to Jesus ministry. Many scholars contend that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet of the Judaic tradition, the exclusive product of Hebrew beliefs and customs. In such Judaic renderings of the life of Jesus, put forward by scholars like E.P. Sanders, gentile culture plays only a peripheral role in the development of Jesus beliefs and mi nistry. By contrast, others have de-emphasized Jesus role as a Jewish prophet and cast him instead as a Hellenistic teacher of wisdom, who inherited much of his material from the philosophy of the Greek cynic school. Writing from this perspective in his book The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, J.D. Crossan describes Jesus as a peasant Jewish cynic (Crossan 421). In addition to the question of Jesus cultural influences, scholars often question whether studying and assessing the Jesus presented in the Bible the Jesus of faith can be anything other than an obfuscation or interference in discovering the historical man who lived in the first century A.D. the Jesus of history. At the extreme end of skeptical scholarship are contentions that dismiss the Jesus of faith not as irrelevant or obfuscating, but as outright fraudulent. Scholars in this camp will often argue that the Jesus presented in the New Testament is an elaborately constructed myth, with St. Paul often credited as the intelligence behind the construction. In contrast to the skeptical view, early 20th century scholar Rudolph Bultmann suggests, in his influential writings such as The History of the Synoptic Tradition, that attempts to find the objective Jesus of history apart from orthodox Christian faith produced only diverse and often conflicting results (McLaughlin). Following Bultmanns suggestion, I begin this study with the presupposition that the conflict between history and faith whether artificial or actual has been largely fruitless as a focal point of historical Jesus research. Rather than attempting to reconcile competing theories, I suggest that secular scholars and religious researchers alike would benefit from the introduction of a common foundation on which to construct a portrait of the historical Jesus. Such an interpretive approach can be found in what I and other scholars have termed Jesus Galilean Context. I suggest that the Galilean Context of Jesus can serve as a mutual focal point between the two often juxtaposed poles of Biblical scholarship those that favor a purely secular interpretation Jesus, and those that wish to emphasize the Christ of tradition while offering fresh insights for both the scholarly community and the Church. A broad survey of the Galilean Contexts ramifications for contemporary scholarship lies beyon d the scope of this study. However, an overview of the Galilee regions cultural, historical, and geographic makeup is sufficient to demonstrate the significance of Jesus Galilean Context as an interpretive tool for shedding light on the development of his life and ministry. Furthermore, a Galilean interpretation of Jesus offers insight into the differences between Jesus and the religious establishment of his time, and can be useful in explaining the characteristics of Jesus ministry that caused him to be put to death. Barring Jesus of Nazareths alleged supernatural activity, the trait that most sets him apart from his contemporaries is his uncanny ability to reach across cultural boundaries and appeal to those who were traditionally excluded from first century Jewish society. Taking into account both Biblical and secular sources, it is clear that Jesus utilized the cultural diversity, economic climate, and geography of the Galilee region as the primary vehicle by which to communicate his message to both Jews and Gentiles. Historical Context: An Intercultural Crossroads Just as Galilee culturally stands at the center of Jesus life and ministry, likewise the Sea of Galilee (see Figure 1) itself is central to understanding what it was for Jesus to be a Galilean. A natural depression surrounded by fertile hills, the Sea of Galilee forms a natural amphitheater 690 feet below sea level, making it the second lowest point on the Earths surface. In contrast to the low elevation of the sea, the adjacent Hills of Galilee rise 1,500 feet above sea level on the western coasts, while the Golan Heights reach over 2,000 feet above sea level to the east. With a circumference of 33 miles and an approximate area of 64 square miles, the Sea of Galilee is the largest freshwater body in Israel. Because of its freshwater composition, the Sea of Galilee would more accurately be described as a lake or inland sea. The Sea of Galilees status as a lake was well known in ancient times, as is revealed in Josephus description of the region in The Jewish War: The Lake of Gennesar has sweet, excellent water, perfectly pure, and the lake ends in pebbly or sandy beaches everywhere (Maier 310). Similarly, the author of Luke 5:1 records that Jesus stood by the Lake of Gennesaret when he addressed the masses. Both authors associate the Sea of Galilee with the fruitful plain of Gennesaret, which lies on the seas northwestern coast. Luke is not unique in using alternate names for the body of water commonly called Galilee, and the names attached to this lake are often indicative of the cultural composition of the region. In Hebrew, Galilee is often known as Yam Kinneret or Chinneroth, both of which describe the lakes elegant lyre shape (Dunston). Galilees roots in Jewish history reach deep into the soil of the Old Testament, with the first mention of the region being made in Joshua 20:7. In Isaiah 8:23, Galilee is called by the Hebrew word Gelil haggoyim, meaning the region of nations (Galilee: Etymology). In its Old Testament context, the word nations is synonymous with gentiles or heathens, which strongly implies that Galilee was wedged within the vicinity of many non-Jewish peoples. In spite of the groping fingers of the nations, however, the region would remain under the control of the Israelites until the armies of Assyria flooded the Northern Kingdom in 732 B.C., seizing Galilee from its Semitic masters (Sea of Galilee). Along with the rest of Palestine, Galilee would later buckle beneath the pressure of Alexander the Greats quest for Hellenistic hegemony in c. 330 B.C. Scholars who see echoes of the Greek cynic school in Jesus teachings find support for their position in the resulting fusion of Jewish and Greek culture, which still permeated the region in the first century A.D. Out of Alexanders conquests rose the Decapolis on Galilees eastern shore (see Figure 1) a collection of ten Greek cities eventually unified under Roman rule (Middendorf). The Gospels indicate that Jesus and his entourage visited the Greek Decapolis on the eastern shore of Galilee, where they journeyed to the city of Gadara as recorded in Mark 5:1. Among the Gentile population, Christ performed a series of miracles including the exorcism of the demon Legion mentioned in Mark 5. Following the miracle, Jesus saw the opportunity he had to spread his message amongst the Gentile population of the region and used the cured man as a vehicle for his reputation, as revealed in the Gospel narrative: As Jesus was getting into the boat, the man who had been demonpossessed begged to go with him. Jesus did not let him, but said, Go home to your family and tell them how much the Lord has done for you, and how he has had mercy on you. So the man went away and began to tell in the Decapolis how much Jesus had done for him. And all the people were amazed. (Mark 5:18-20; emphasis mine). As a result of this missionary activity, Jesus popularity grew in the region, as evidenced by the great multitudes of people from Decapolis mentioned in Matthew 4:25. Based on Scripture, it seems that Jesus actually made a second trip into the Decapolis later in his ministry. Mark 7:31 reports that after an interlude in Tyre and Sidon to the north of Galilee, Jesus returned to the Galilee region and went into the region of the Decapolis. In the decades following his ministry, Jesus influence on the Decapolis would continue to reverberate in the growing Christian community. Philadelphia, a Decapolis city far south of the Sea of Galilee, would become the site of a thriving church for whom the author of Revelation offers the highest praise in verses 3:7-11. Following Alexanders conquests, Galilee would remain in cultural and political flux until the Maccabean revolt during the last century B.C. briefly reclaimed the lost crown of Jewish sovereignty. With a large Jewish migration into the region during the mid-100s B.C., Galilee briefly regained its Jewish character, only to fall again to Roman conquest in 63 B.C. The author of John refers to the Sea of Galilee, which is the Sea of Tiberias (John 6:1), connecting Galilee with the Roman city of Tiberias (see Figure 1), which stood on the lakes western shore. For Jews living in the era of Roman occupation, Tiberias was a place of dubious reputation. Constructed under the direction of Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great, Tiberias was a stalwart monument to the Roman presence in the region. In spite of Tiberias pre-eminence, the citys odious cemetery repulsed the local Jewish population, who viewed the presence of a burial ground as ritually unclean (Sea of Galilee). Intercultural tolerance was in short supply in first century Palestine, however, and Herod eventually attracted Jewish settlers to the city by force. Left to brace themselves against a crumbling wall of ethnic identity, these Jews would continue to practice their traditions throughout the first century, eventually transforming the once profane city of Tiberias into a center of Jewish scholarship that would play a decisive role in the compilation of rabbinical commentaries such as the Mishna and the Talmud (Sea of Galilee). In a technical sense, first century Galilee was a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, meaning that it was essentially self-governing but ultimately subjugated to the greater will of its imperial masters (Hanson). A client king, such as Herod Antipas, would rule autonomously, but he, in turn, would be responsible for maintaining Caesar Augustus good will by sending tribute to Rome. From a practical standpoint, this meant that the local region could maintain much of its cultural identity, as it did under the Jewish Antipas (Hanson). However, the peace that such a system created was ephemeral, being constituted by the necessity of compromise rather than contentment. On the occasions when this structure weakened, the stirrings of rebellion could burst through the dam of stability. Josephus reports in Jewish Antiquities that while the Romans were distracted by internecine strife between Archelaus and Antipas, revolutionary activity took its toll on the Galilee region: the whole country was without any government, and erupted in violence. Judas, son of Ezekias the bandit plundered Galilee, while Simon, a slave of Herod, crowned himself king and burned the royal palace in Jericho until he was caught and beheaded Athronges, a huge shepherd with his burly brothers conducted a guerilla campaign and others also spread ruin and desolation over the country (Maier 258). It was this internal tension that stirred the authorities of Jesus time to question his motives and accuse him of undermining the Roman authority. Reporting for PBS From Jesus to Christ, L. Michael White, Professor of Classics and Director of the Religious Studies Program University of Texas at Austin, posits that the term Galilean itself carried loaded connotations in the first century. To some, he suggests, it just might mean an outsider, or someone whos not really an old Jew of the traditional sort. Precisely because the Galilee had traditionally not been Jewish at the time of the Maccabean Revolt a hundred or 150 years before Jesus. But from another perspective, Galilean also took on the coloration of being rebellious, or insurrectionistso for some, the term Galilean might also mean something political (From Jesus to Christ). Many of Christs followers, in fact, wanted him to be a revolutionary figure in the vein of Judas the Galilean, as evidenced by their attempts to crown him king in John 6:15. Yet, Jesus himself seems to have been alienated from the anti-Roman movement, because he responds to the attempted coronation by departing into a mountain himself alone. Nonetheless, the Roman authorities appear to have associated him with the more radical currents of the Galilee. Ironically, the immediate consequence of Jesus teachings was the same as that of many Galilean radicals, as described by Josephus: Tiberius Alexander crucified James and Simon, the sons of Judas the Galilean, who had aroused the people to rebellion (Maier 273). Developmental Context: Galilee During Christs Formative Years Because of the ethnic composition of the region, it would be possible for an individual living in first century Galilee to experience aspects of both Jewish and Gentile culture. As the two worlds became, of necessity, more entwined, it is likely that each succeeding generation would become more of a composite of the two. Little of Jesus youth is revealed in the Gospels, yet the impact that these years would have on his ministry cannot be underestimated. In the isolated hills of the Galilean town of Nazareth (see Figure 1) that Christ would find the raw materials of many of his most enduring parables seeds being sown, grapes ripening on the vine, and farmers ardently shaping the land. Such images resurface throughout the teachings of Christ, as in the parable of the farmer and the seeds in Matthew 13, the parable of the sheep in Matthew 18, and the parable of the fruit tree of Matthew 3. By contrast, Jesus rarely draws on examples from commerce or military life in his teachings, nor does he employ the legalistic language that would be expected of a teacher from Jerusalem. Although the New Testament is our only source of Nazareths history until the 4th century A.D., the agricultural character of this small community can be inferred by two means. Although such etymological constructions are at best speculative, many linguistic scholars believe that the name Nazareth derives from a root word meaning separated, which describes the towns relative distance from the rest of the Galilean community (Baird). While this may be one shade of meaning, the word Nazareth may have its origins in the Hebrew word netser, which means sprout or shoot (Baird). Some argue that this refers to the towns being an offshoot of the greater Galilee region (Baird). This may be true, but to argue that sprout refers to the towns size would be to read into the Hebrew language an idiom for which there is little evidence, and it seems apparent to me that a literal reading of netser is most appropriate. If this is the case, the name clearly carries agrarian connotations. Secondly, it must be remembered that Galilees primary source of food production was its shoreline fishing industry. Geographically cut off from the regions cornucopia and too small to participate in any significant trading, Nazareth would, by necessity, have relied on small-scale agriculture for its survival (Hanson). Much like the Kibbutzim small, socialistic Jewish settlements of modern Israel, Nazareth would most likely have been a self-sufficient village that produced most of its own goods. Aside from its rural qualities, other characteristics of Nazareth must be inferred from the Biblical texts. In particular, the question arises as to where and when Jesus developed his sage knowledge of Jewish scripture and tradition, as well as his provocative orators skill. According to John 7:15, the initial reaction to Christs literacy was one of surprise: The Jews were amazed and asked, How did this man get such learning without having studied? The picture seems to be one of a supposedly ignorant villager suddenly displaying a profound knowledge of Jewish learning, revealing himself to be distinct from the other peasants of his day. Although Nazareth appears to have been a Semitic island in an intercultural sea, it seems implausible to assume that Jesus grew up in ethnic isolation. Consider, for example, his easy tolerance of non-Jewish peoples and customs and his eventual conflicts with the conservative element of the Jewish religion. According to many Biblical scholars, these skills could hardly be expected in a man who had been reared in isolation, with limited cross-cultural contact (Reed 104). A plausible explanation, then, must be sought outside of Nazareth. While Nazareth did exist apart from the Sea of Galilees cosmopolitan coastline, the Jewish hamlet was only an hours walk worldly-wise Sepphoris, Antipas capital of Galilee (Reed 105). In his book Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus, Professor Jonathan Reed asserts that it would be almost impossible for Jesus not to have seen Sepphoris (see Figure 1) at some point in his life, out of curiosity, if not necessity (Reed 105). In spite of its prominence in Galilean society, however, Sepphoris is completely absent from the Gospel narratives. That the Bible never mentions Christ teaching in this city has usually been explained as a political snub to Antipas or a necessity for Christs safety, in light of John the Baptists execution (Reed 104). Other scholars contend that Jesus did teach in Sepphoris, but that his teachings there were not well-received and thus dismissed by the Gospel writers (Reed 104). The latter theory seems odd, since the Gospel writers include multiple accounts of audienc es unfriendly to the teachings of Jesus, including his childhood neighbors in Nazareth. What both of these theories fail to recognize, however, is the probability that Jesus had visited Sepphoris in his youth, but chose not to return in adulthood. According to the Gospels, Josephs trade was carpentry, and as sons usually took on the trade of their fathers in first century Palestine, Christ is also called a carpenter in Mark 6:3. Assuming that Christ was born in the first decade of the first century, he would likely have been too young to participate in Antipas ambitious construction of Sepphoris in A.D. 3 or 4. However, should Joseph have been contracted to work in the city, it is likely that he would have taken the young Jesus with him for on the job training. Putting aside Antipas initial building project, Nazareths close proximity to Sepphoris would seem to indicate that Joseph, or perhaps Jesus himself, would have sought work in the bustling Roman city. If Jesus career did bring him to Sepphoris, then a plausible explanation can be offered for the ease with which he learned to cross traditional cultural boundaries. Recent excavations of the site reveal that its inhabitants were mostly from the upper-class, as evidenced by the presence of extravagant ritual baths called miqweh in the houses of the city (Reed 107). The sheer cost of transporting fresh, clean water from the Sea of Galilee into the city of Sepphoris would have made these a luxury (Meyers). While Jesus would denounce elitist attitudes during his ministry, he draws from a wealth of material that may have been engendered by contact perhaps as a hired worker with Sepphoris urban nobility. For example, the parable of the royal banquet in Matthew 22:1 -14 describes an occurrence that Jesus may have witnessed while in Sepphoris, while the rich men of Luke 12 and 16 may have been based on personages met in the city. Assuming that Jesus did have contact with Sepphoris, then it may have been his experiences as a hired laborer that fueled Christs later criticisms of the wealthy. A traditional picture of class warfare begins to emerge when one recognizes that Jesus belonged to a lower-income family. In Luke 12:24, Mary the mother of Jesus makes an offering of a pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons. This offering of birds was customary of poor families, who could not afford to offer the usual lamb (LaSor 83). While Sepphoris no doubt brought Jesus into contact with the gentiles, evidence suggests that the city was largely Jewish in character, but of a less traditional style (Reed 107). In archaeological digs, ample piles of pig bones have been found in the second and third century strata, but the first century layer of the city includes almost none indicating that the Jews, who did not eat pork, were the dominant citizens of the city during the time of Christ (Reed 107). In spite of the Jewish presence in the city, the culture of Sepphoris would have been of a more urbanized type than that found in Judea. Writing in Jewish War, Josephus reports that Sepphoris took a pro-Roman position in the first-century Palestinian revolt (Chancey). Sepphoris decision to routinely harbor Roman garrisons is described by Josephus as a betrayal of the allies of their tribe and an insurrection against the common religious center of Jerusalem (Chancey). German Scholar Walter Bauer, cited in Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus, argues that the religious life of Sepphoris was distanced from the legalistic religion of the Pharisees and contends that by extension so was Christ in his early years. Clearly, the rift between Christ and the legalism of the Jerusalem authorities that resulted from Christs upbringing offers one plausible explanation for his death. However, while Bauers argument may be sufficient in explaining Jesus later conflicts with the Pharisees, it may overemphasize the role of Sepphoris in shaping the religious life of the young Christ. Because of Jesus economic position, it is unlikely that he would have viewed the aristocracy of Sepphoris of as role models to be emulated. Like the majority of Galileans, Jesus was alienated from both the secular wealthy and the religious elite. If, as the saying goes, individuals are defined by the company they keep, then Jesus distance from the prominent people of his time is proved in his choice of average Galilean fishermen as companions. Socio-Economic Context: On the Shores of Galilee It was shortly after his baptism that Jesus made his way to the shores of the Sea of Galilee itself. A remarkably fertile country, the hills of the Galilean seashore would have been brimming with life as Jesus strolled among them, teaching the people and proclaiming that the kingdom of God is at hand (Mrk 1:15). For the fishermen who worked along Galilees coasts, however, the iridescent majesty of the sea would not have been the primary motive for slogging around its waters on a daily basis. Rather, these men were motivated by the perennial need for economic survival. Although many Galileans owned their own fishing boats and equipment, there is little evidence to suggest that they participated in a free market economy, such readers in the Western world might envision. While Galilean society was not communistic by any stretch of the imagination, its primary economic movers were political and familial structures, with production largely seen as an ends to maintaining the stability of both (Hanson). Generally speaking, the legs that carried Galilean society were peasant fishermen or farmers whose primary economic motive was to feed their families, with family units serving as both producer and consumer (Hason). It must be realized, however, that the Galilean concept of family was much broader than that with which most Americans are familiar, and usually included a complex network of inner and outer relations. In order to maximize production and prevent domestic squabbles semi-formal trade relations were established among kin, creating endeavors of mutual interest (Hanson). Fishing in Hellenistic Galilee usually took one of four forms: casting a line with bronze hooks, dipping a flaxen net into the sea, primitive fish traps, or pronged tridents (Hanson). It is unclear from Mark 1:18-19 what type of net Simon and Andrew were using, since the Greek word used in this passage, dictua, is a generic term for nets (Hanson). Matthew 1:18 clarifies in telling us that Simon and Andrew were working with an amphiblestron, or hand-held casting net (Hanson). In spite of their relative independence, the fishermen of first century Galilee crawled through life at subsistence level, producing only enough to meet their basic needs (Hanson). Roman client kings, such as Herod Antipas, were supportive of the fishing industry only insofar as it gave them the ability to profit by levying severe taxes and tolls on the fishermans product. This constant taxation which allowed Antipas to pay tribute to the reigning Caesar left the average fisherman in Galilean society just slightly above the status of the average laborer. So, it was in keeping with his concern for the marginalized of society that Jesus first followers were drawn from the decks of Galilean fishing boats. Mark 1: 16 records that as Jesus walked by the shores of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon and Andrew, casting a fishing net into the sea. Although John 1:36 records that Andrew was a disciple of John the Baptist and already knew of Jesus coming, the response of the fishermen to Christs invitation to become fishers of men (Mrk 1:17) is profound. Considering that the very survival of these men rode on their ability to bring in a bounty of fish each day, their abrupt decision to forsake their nets and follow him (Mrk 1:18) reveals the unique skill of Jesus in appealing to the average Galilean. His ability to frame his invitation (follow me) in a Galilean context (fishers of men) drove home a provocative point that would have been lost on these brothers had Christ engaged in sophisticated theological argumentation. Because of Christs clever association of his message with the Galilean fishing economy, the fishermen were drawn to Christs larger theme of eternal life. Jesus invitation to the fishermen is consistent with the teaching style he used during his Galilean ministry, which relied on the imagery of the region to convey theological points. In Mark 6, for example, Jesus uses a boys small fish most likely sardines and five loaves of bread to feed a five thousand people. Through this example, Jesus demonstrates the process by which his teachings would reach the world first from through his death (illustrated by the broken bread and fish), then through the Apostles on Pentecost (He gave them [the loaves and fish] to the disciples), and from the Apostles to all the nations of the world (and the disciples gave them [the loaves and fishes] to the crowds). A large fishing net, called a sagene, is mentioned by Jesus in Matthew 13:47 as an illustration of the Kingdom of Gods cross-cultural reach (Hanson). Like a net dragged behind a boat, Jesus explains, the Kingdom of Heaven pulls in a diversity of people some good for consumption and some stale and rotten all which will be sorted out at the end of the age. Where most Jews expected the Messianic kingdom to be exclusively Semitic, Jesus sagene illustration is a bold departure from tradition, especially when one considers that Galilee is home to over thirty different species of fish. James and John, Jesus second set of seafaring apostles, may have been mending such a net in Mark 1:20. Their reaction to Jesus call to ministry was the same as that of Simon and Peter, and it may have been partially inspired by the endorsement that the former pair of fishermen had given to the traveling Messiah. It is likely that some knot of kinship bound the Yonah family of Simon and Peter together with the Zebedee family of James and John, for in Luke 5:10, the Gospel writer records that the sons of Zebedee were partners with Simon. The Greek word usually read as partners koinonoi would more be more accurately translated as cooperative-members, implying that familial trade relations existed between the two fishing interests (Hanson). Based on the fact that both families owned their own boats and fishing equipment, some scholars have concluded that they represent a sort of upper middle class in Galilean society (Hanson). Others argue that this conclusion inappropriately reads free-market ideas into the Galilean economy and infers a degree of economic stratification that probably did not exist in first century Galilee (Reed 165). While the inference of an upper middle class may be a historical hyperbole, Mark 1:20 does indicate that the Zebedee family at least had hired servants. Accordingly, it can be inferred that Galilean fishermen were higher up the economic ladder than those who contributed the raw materials and manual labor that supported the fishing trade. Nonetheless, it is true that the hiring of itinerant peasant workers was a common practice that in no way indicates membership in the upper class (Reed 165), although we may assume that the Zebedee family was capable of maintaining a living. Jesus not only mingled with the fishermen of Galilee, but he also lived with them during his ministry at Capernaum (see Figure 1). Archaeological evidence suggests that Capernaum was near the bottom of Galilees social registry, lacking in niceties such as marble, frescoes, mosaic, and ritual baths (Reed 165). While the affluent left their indelible mark on society by sponsoring public buildings like the theater at Sepphoris, no such projects have been found among the ruins of Capernaum (Reed 165). Thus, Capernaum became the setting for Jesus to work with common or even lowly people, who would become his primary followers throughout much of the Galilean ministry. Capernaum clearly influenced Jesus treatment of the poor, satisfying his drive to reach those of his own social class with his message. In addition, Capernaum would have extended Christs interaction with Galilees non-Jewish population. Although the unassuming city lingered on the edge of Antipas tetrarchy, Capernaum appears to have been part of a regional trade network (Reed 165). Because of this, the city would have witnessed a steady stream of gentile merchants and sojourners passing through on business. This intersection of Jews and Gentiles is exhibited by Matthew 8:5, in which a Roman centurion implores Jesus to heal his dying servant. Much like American peacekeepers in Iraq today, the centurion may have been viewed by Jewish peasants as a necessary, but unwelcome, foreign intruder. Apparently, the Gentiles faith startled Jesus (Matt 8:10), who immediately healed the mans withering servant and declared the centurions faith superior to that of Jewish Israel. During a later trip through Capernaum, Christ would again display his tendency to cross cultural boundaries by calling Mattew, a tax collector, into his retinue (Mark 1:14). In the pristine holiness of dusty Renaissance paintings and chapel windows, we tend to imagine the apostles as

China and Mao Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

China and Mao - Essay Example This is because there were frequent power struggles between different parties such as Hua Guofeng and Deng Xiaoping, who presented different ideologies on how China should progress. The reason for the differences in opinion and power struggles lies in political and economic state of the country, where Mao’s policies included controlling the economy of the nation, while reformists worked towards changing and bringing everything back to the people hence the different factions (Eastmarsh, 1980). With the above, reforms began trickling in as power was returned to the people and the leaders were denied of certain powers, where absolute decision making no longer lay with them. Instead, democracy started taking root as Deng, and communism ceased to be a full recognizable system and became a concept that was used to show how different the Chinese system of politics is different from that of the western world (Eastmarsh, 1980). Free speech has always been a social concern in China, where freedom of expression is not widely practiced to date following the declaration of Mao’s â€Å"hundred flowers speech† which was then used against scholars who came up with schools of thought differing from those of his government (Allen, 2011). This is because the scholars were met with violent and extensive suppression, including re-education. After Mao’s death, free speech continued to be a problem because it only indicating the possibility of social unrest, in which case different ideas critiqued the government and political leaders negatively. As a result, freedom of speech has been widely denied to the Chinese people to date. Another way in which free speech remains elusive is following Mao’s declaration of â€Å"hundred flowers speech†, which was used as an offensive strategy to lure out scholars who were against government policies. This made the

Google lnc.-Earnings Announcements and Information Environment Assignment

Google lnc.-Earnings Announcements and Information Environment - Assignment Example As a matter of fact, earnings numbers clearly bear a significant impact on valuations of public market. While per share earnings calculations are straight forward, corporations frequently report â€Å"pro forma† EPS numbers. Valuations based on pro forma numbers against GAAP EPS numbers potentially translate into significant valuation changes. Pro forma earnings are non-GAAP and exclude items like restructuring charges, asset impairment charges, losses on asset and businesses sales, goodwill amortization, as well as equity method investments losses (Burns, 2009). It is widely claimed that pro forma numbers are net of â€Å"items deemed as non-reoccurring, non-cash or unimportant,† and hence pro forma numbers portray a realistic picture of their potential and value. ii. It is widely held that Pro Forma Analysis gives investors a clearer picture of company operations. As a matter of fact, they are believed to offer more accurate view of financial performance and outlook due to the nature of businesses. For instance, a firm like a cable and telecommunication company will prefer Pro Forma analysis because constantly makes operating profits by writing down depreciation costs. In essence, investors concerned with long-term company valuation can do well by analyzing pro-forma earnings. Additionally, pro forma analysis allows companies to identify their core value drivers, in addition to analyzing the changing trends within operations. iii. In January, 2003 SEC instituted a final rule through  §401(b) the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOA) with regard to use of â€Å"pro forma† financial analysis in information on SEC filings as well as other public disclosures. According to the rules, all companies that provide pro forma must accompany the same with corresponding or equivalent GAAP measures (Burns, 2009). This is to allow industry comparability, in addition to standardization for

Roman Empire Essay Example for Free

Roman Empire Essay The Roman Empire had stretched so large by the fourth century CE that it had several provincial capitals. The two most important political centers were Rome in the West and Constantinople in the East, which had formerly been called Byzantium. The emperor, Constantine the Great, rebuilt Byzantium to resemble â€Å"Old Rome,† and so this political center became known as the â€Å"New Rome.† Although those who lived in Constantinople referred to themselves as Romans and were part of the Roman Empire, historians now refer to the peoples of the Eastern Roman Empire as Byzantines. Though the Byzantine Empire no longer remains, evidence from the era exists across Southern Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia, and beyond. The Byzantines are famous for their intricate mosaics, like the golden ones here inside a church in Istanbul, Turkey, which was once known as Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. How Did the Byzantines Continue the Roman Empire? By the end of the fourth century CE, the Roman Empire was permanently split into East and West. While the Byzantine Empire in the East thrived, the Western Roman Empire experienced a series of invasions, a declining economy, and poor leadership. In 476 CE, the last Roman emperor of the West, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by a Germanic prince named Odovacar. After the fall of Rome, Germanic kingdoms claimed former Roman lands. Roads and other public structures fell into disrepair. Likewise, trade and commerce in the West declined. Without a powerful Western Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church became a unifying and powerful force in western Europe. In contrast, Byzantine emperors in the East were successful in keeping a powerful army that they could send long distances. While the West was repeatedly invaded after the fourth century CE, the East succeeded in defending itself well enough that Constantinople survived nearly 1,000 years after the fall of Rome. Byzantine leaders co ntinued Roman law and traditions. The Byzantine emperor Justinian is well known for codifying Roman laws. In the process, the authors removed conflicting, duplicated, and outdated Roman laws. Also during Justinians reign, artists revived Hellenistic art and literature. Many historians credit the Byzantine Empire for todays knowledge of ancient Greek and Roman cultures. As the West went into decline, scholars in the East maintained great libraries and established schools for the study of ancient Greek and Roman history. They also continued Roman culture by combining it with aspects of peoples closer to Constantinople. Most Byzantines were Greek, but a mix of North Africans, Arabs, Persians, and Turks also lived within the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire. Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire, but more people spoke Greek in the East. Eventually Greek became the official language in the Byzantine Empire. How Did Christianity Develop in the Byzantine Empire? Time and distance from Rome caused the Byzantine Empire to develop practices that were different from the West. This was especially true of ChristianityByzantine emperors saw themselves as having authority over the whole Roman Empire, including the Catholic Church. The emperor had final authority on church matters. The Patriarch and otherbishops answered to the emperor. In the Byzantine Empire, the highest political authority and highest religious authority was the same person. However, in the West, kings and church leaders were separate, though kings answered to the popeChristianity helped unify the diverse people of the Byzantine Empire. Being head of the church gave the emperors the right to rule in the eyes of the people. Byzantine mosaics often show emperors with halos, emphasizing the connection to the church. The prominent role of Christianity in the empire is evident in the many Byzantine-era churches and the detailed works of art they contain. What Was the Iconoclast Controv ersy? In the eighth and ninth centuries, the Byzantine Empire is probably most famous for theiconoclasm controversy. An icon is a holy image or sculpture of a revered holy figure such as Jesus Christ or a saint. A saint is someone who is recognized as holy or virtuous by the Church. Byzantine art frequently used human forms and symbols to represent important ideas and figures in Christianity. A great debate arose over whether this type of practice, including veneration of the icons, was acceptable.iconoclasts, meaning icon breakers, were those who were against the practice. They feared it could lead to idolatry, forbidden by the Bible. How Did the Controversy Affect the Byzantine Empire? The iconoclast debate became a political issue that lasted more than 100 years. Many historians say it was also the greatest intellectual debate over the purpose of art. The pope and bishops in the West supported the use of icons, as did most Byzantine bishops. The practice had existed for centuries. As the emperor was head of the Byzantine church, he did not need support from church leaders to ban icons. In fact, people who continued to support icons during those times experiencedpersecution. What Other Issues Split East and West? The use of icons as religious symbols was not the only issue dividing the Eastern and Western churches. One was the use of leavened instead of unleavened bread in worship. Church leaders attached special importance to breads made with or without yeast, per quotes in the Bible. They disagreed on the proper interpretations. Another issue was the power of the pope, who saw the position of the emperor over the patriarch in the East as a challenge to his own authority. In addition, the importance of Constantinople as an important Christian city was in debate. Church leaders in the West objected to Byzantine emperors claims of Constantinople having equal importance to Rome. What Was the Great Schism? By 1054, the differences between East and West had grown too wide. That year, Pope Leo IX sent representatives to Constantinople. They insisted that Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople, acknowledge the pope as his superior and Rome as the head of the Christian church. The delegates leader, acting on the popes behalf, excommunicated Cerularius. The patriarch excommunicated the delegates and the pope in return. This event marks the Great Schism, or split, in Christianity between East and West. The Church in the West became the Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church continued to grow in the East, based in Constantinople. Roman Catholic Church| Similarities| Eastern Orthodox Church| * Latin was official language * Pope has highest authority, over kings and emperors as well * Priests cannot marry * Married couples could not divorce * Centered in Rome| * Both base teachings on Jesus and the Bible * Both offer sacraments, meaning special church services such as b aptism * Both have priests and bishops as church leaders * Both seek to convert others to Christianity| * Greek was official language * Patriarch and other bishops lead as a group * Emperor claimed authority over the patriarch * Priests can marry * Married couples could divorce under certain conditions * Centered in Constantinople| The Byzantine Empires culture was already spreading to Slavic and other peoples further east and north. Many of these groups converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity, especially because of the work of saints Cyril and Methodius. St. Cyril was talented in learning languages and worked to create the first written alphabet for the Slavonic language. He and St. Methodius then were able to begin translating the Bible into the new alphabet. They were missionaries to the Slavs, credited with spreading Christianity and Byzantine influence. Western Roman Empire| Eastern (Byzantine) Empire| Latin was official language| Iconoclast controversy| Pope was highest authority| Orthodox Church| Catholic Church| Greek was official language| Excommunicated iconoclasts| Patriarch was highest church leader| Centered in Rome| Centered in Constantinople|

The Arab Baath Movement and The Rise of the Baath Party in Syria Essay

Contrary to popular beliefs, civil activism and civil society has managed to thrive in the Middle East. Social movements on a variety of topics have occurred despite the lack of democracy and democratic institutions in certain countries. One popular movement was the Arab Ba’ath Movement which eventually led to the formation of the Baath Party. By analyzing the movement’s history, ideological stance, goals, the actors, dissenters, and international aspect, one can determine how and why the movement flourished in Syria. Syria was granted de jure independence from the French in 1941. However, the country was not truly independent until 1946. For the next twenty-five years, the country would be launched into extreme political instability and party factionalism. In the beginning, the parties were moderate and pushed for economic and social reforms to match. But, as the 1940s came to an end, these liberal parties lost their legitimacy. The rural workers and urban poor were growing unhappy with the current state of affairs and started advocating for more radical changes in the political and economic realm. During this time period, Baathism, which eventually evolved into the Arab Baath Party in 1947, became very prominent in the Arab world. Started by Michael Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, the movement was created in Damascus due to the intense nationalism that was sweeping the country in response to the British and French control of the area. The movement gained legitimacy by using sources that Arabians could identify with: history, religion, nationalism, development, freedom, and socialism (Gerner and Schrodt 112). However, Baathism didn’t appeal to everyone in Syria. The urban Sunni middle class especially wasn’t attracted to Baa... ...ersity of New York Press, 1991. Web. Galvani, John. "Syria and the Baath Party." Middle East Research and Information Project 25.Feburary (1974): 3-16. JSTOR. Web. 2 Apr 2012. Gerner, Deborah J., and Philip A. Schrodt. "Middle Eastern Politics." Understanding the Contemporary Middle East. 3rd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008. 85 -136. Print. Hinnebusch, Raymond. "Syria." The Middle East. Ed. Ellen Lust. 12th ed. Washington (D.C.): CQ, 2011. 675-701. Print. Kamrava, Mehran. "The Arab-Israeli Wars." The Modern Middle East: A Political History since the First World War. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California, 2010. 109-39. Print. Mufti, Malik. "The United States and Nasserist Pan-Arabism." The Middle East and the United States: A Historical and Political Reassessment. Ed. David W. Lesch. 3rd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003. 168-87. Print.

Outline and Evaluate Social Psychological Theories of Aggression

Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory is based on the fact that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous mutual interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Outline of research: Bobo Doll experiment The Bobo doll experiment was conducted by Bandura and studied patterns of behaviour associated with aggression. Bandura carried out this study to look at social learning, where people learn through imitation.He used children, because they generally have less social conditioning. Bandura wanted to expose children to adult models exhibiting either aggressive or nonaggressive behaviours. Then, in a new environment without the adult model, he wanted to observe whether or not the children imitate these adult model aggressive or nonaggressive behaviours. Evaluation of Research 1. Cause and effect can be established as it could be demonstrated that the model did have an effect on the child's resulting behavior because all variables other than the IV are being controlled. . Artificial as hitting a doll isn’t the same as hitting a person, as there is no evidence that young children intend to harm bobo in modeling experiments. 3. The bobo doll experiments are reliable as many other studies support the fact that children learn by imitating others. Outline of research: Family background of aggression Patterson’s study was conducted using interviews and questionnaires and comparing families with at least one highly aggressive child to other families. His findings suggested that a coercive home enviroment may cause aggressiveness.This is an enviroment which little affection is shown as they don’t use social reinforcement they use punishment and shouting and other aggressive tactics for behavioural control. Evaluation of Research: 1. Has high ecological Validity as it relates to real life situations. 2. the research is base d on long-term influences on aggression, which therefore shows that it’s more useful then studies which look at short term influences. 3. real life situations, not all variables can be controlled which could effect the behaviours which therefore means cause an effect are not conclusive.Overall Evaluation of the theory 1. It has a lot of support from laboratory experiments such as the Bobo doll series of studies. However it lacks ecological validity and this does reduce the theory’s ability to clarify real life aggression. 2. Real life research such as Patterson demonstrates that role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour. Therefore theses studies support the SLT. 3. Lacks population validity as the key studies are done with children as the main participants so cannot be linked to older people. DeindividuationDeindividuated people are more likely to be aggressive because of a loss of individuality which leads to reduced self-restraint. Deindiv iuation is the loss of self awareness and sense of personal responsibility, people normally avoid acting in a aggressive manners partly as it’s seen as vulgar behaviour an as they are identifiable to society. However being anonymous in a crowd means reducing inner restraints and increasing behaviours that are usually inhibited, Studies such as Zimbardo have provided evidence that deindividuation can be an explanation for aggression.Outline research evidence: Zimbardo Zimbardo aimed to try and find if anonymity was a key factor in deindividuation. In an experiment very similar to Milgrams – he found that in his anonymous group they gave twice as many shocks as high control group even when told the learner was critical. He then concluded that anonymity was the reason for this and it lead to that groups added aggression. Evaluation of research 1. Could be said that neither study actually measures physical aggression as the participants do not physically harm each other. . Because it is not a real life situation participants may not behave in there natural and usual way, meaning it lacks ecological validity. 3. Does not show whether the uniform worn is important to behaving aggressively which raises questions as to whether it is another factor. Outline research evidence Football Hooliganism, which was where Marsh investigated the crowds of football fans to establish whether their high level of excitement and anonymity lead to deindividuation and aggression.From this experiment Marsh concluded that aggression is one of the norms of the group, as group membership is likely to lead to aggressive behaviour, however it can also be controlled aggression. Overall Evaluation of Evidence: 1. Because it is not a real life situation participants may not behave in there natural and usual way, meaning it lacks ecological validity 2. Deindividuation means one tends to abandon personal control. The results of the research could be taken to imply that deindividuatio n can increase conformity to certain social norms and its high levels of conformity to a group rather than itself, which leads to aggression. . Evidence shows that it does not always lead to aggression, which is a difficulty as its not always true. General Points All three have good supporting evidence and so they have reliability in explaining aggression. The theories all focus on social psychology and tend to underestimate and ignore the other possibilities for the aggression such as biological influences.References: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Bobo_doll_experiment http://www. learning-theories. com/social-learning-theory-bandura. html http://psy. ex. ac. uk/~tpostmes/PDF/05deindividuation. pdf

Intolerance: Minority Group and Society Essay

Princess Diana once said, â€Å" The greatest problem in the world today is intolerance. Everyone is so intolerant of each other. † It is indeed true that intolerance is one of the greatest problems faced by the word today. Intolerance refers to lacking the capacity or willingness to recognize and respect the beliefs, practices or traits of others. In the past, there has been uncountable number of incidents of one being prejudiced against another individual who is unlike the majority of the population. For example, in the context of my society, Singapore, intolerance has been displayed towards racial minorities, religious minorities, single mothers, foreigners, the Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer (LGBTQ) community and many other marginalized groups. Some might argue that intolerance of these minority groups is less prevalent in my society today as compared to the past. However, I personally feel that intolerance is still widely seen in my society today, due to the conservative nature of Singaporeans, globalisation and the increasingly competitive Singaporean society. Some schools of thoughts argue that the intolerance towards those who are different is gradually being reduced today as there are greater opportunities for education that have led to increasing integration of people who are different. Education in Singapore promotes social integration among the different racial groups in Singapore. Schools in Singapore provide a common space for social integration not only among locals from various ethnic groups, but also between the local and foreign students. Schools in Singapore also place strong emphasis on Civics and Literacy education to inculcate respect and appreciation of different cultures in Singapore. For example, through the celebration of Racial Harmony Day and International Friendship Day, students are able to appreciate the different cultures of their peers better. Another aspect in which education has led to a reduction in intolerance is the alternative education pathway for children with special needs. Special education programmes that cater to these children aim to help them become independent and enable them to function well in society. This is evident through the increasing number of social enterprises that cater to those who are physically or intellectually challenged. These people gain not only a chance at being employed but also have a chance to interact with members of society on a more frequent basis, something which is not as common in the past. This is likely due to the developing special education sector in Singapore, which has seen success in public education and in helping children with special needs to integrate into mainstream society. Therefore, education has been a platform that has moved my society into a more tolerant one. Intolerance towards those who are different is gradually being reduced in my society, as there are increasingly more ground-up initiatives that have successfully raised awareness and understanding. Many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and Voluntary Welfare organisations (VWOs) or even individuals that have engaged in advocacy that sets out to raise public awareness about minority groups. Thus, prejudiced mindsets towards several minority groups in Singapore are gradually being eroded. An example of this is the Yellow Ribbon Project that started out in 2004, is organized by CARE network Singapore, which aims to help ex-convicts reintegrate back into society. Inmates are encouraged to sign up for skill training courses so as to be able to take up more jobs after their prison sentence. It was reported that by 2008, through awareness of the programme in Singapore, 560 new employers had registered with the Singapore Corporation of Rehabilitative Enterprises (SCORE) to offer jobs to ex-offenders. Though this may not yet reflect the mindset of the entire population towards ex-convicts, it signals an opening up of attitudes that are gaining speed. Therefore, intolerance is less prevalent in my society due to the efforts undertaken by various organisations to successfully raise awareness and understanding of the public towards these marginalized groups. While there are merits in the above arguments, it is too naive for one to simply assume that with education and efforts by activist groups, intolerance towards those who are different are not as common as in the past. In fact, intolerance towards those who are different is still widely seen in Singapore today because of the fear of erosion of national values in this increasingly liberal-minded world, in turn driving us to promote our conservative beliefs with greater intensity. With globalisation, there has been an increasing influence of the Western Culture. Due to the fear of erosion of traditional family values that are the foundation of social institutions such as the family, people are becoming more intolerant of changing values and remain conservative to ensure that these traditional values are not threatened by foreign cultures and values. In order to protect traditional values and social institutions, institutionalized discrimination towards certain groups of people in society exists in the form of government policies implemented. This reveals an unwillingness to accept those who may be different and accord them with equal rights. For example, in the case of Homosexuality, section 377A of the Penal Code criminalises acts of gross indecency between men in Singapore. The Woman’s Charter also does not recognize marriages that are not between men and woman in or outside of Singapore. The refusal of the government to recognize the legitimacy of homosexual marriages reveals an unwillingness to respect the range of sexual orientations that are different from the traditional concept of sexual orientation the society may have. Another example is the Pink Dot rally on the 28 June 2014, which generated strong responses among Singaporeans. An Islamic religious teacher launched the â€Å"Wear White Campaign† in retaliation to the Pink Dot LGBTQ movement. The Faith Community Baptist Church (FCBC) supported this campaign whereby over 6,400 members of the church dressed in white to attend a special â€Å"family worship† service conducted by the church. This was done to protest the annual Pink Dot rally with their Senior Pastor, Lawrence Khong, who views this movement as a â€Å"decline in moral and family values. † Thus, this shows that despite the increasingly liberal and Western influenced world we live in, Singaporeans still remains a largely conservative society that is still strongly rooted to our traditional values. Therefore, intolerance is not only still largely prevalent but it has in fact intensified over the years. Next, into lerance towards those who are different is still prevalent today because the increased mobility in a borderless world today has heightened the level of interaction amongst people from different cultures. Thus, increasing the incidence of cultural clashes. Globalisation has enabled greater mobility of people and there has been an increasing migration of people to live or work in foreign lands. With more foreigners entering the country, the chances of cultural clashes between the foreigners and local  residents rises, especially when foreigners do not assimilate the local culture. An example of Singaporean’s intolerance towards foreigners is evident through the Not In My Backyard movement. In 2008 when the government announced plans for an unused technical school at Serangoon Gardens to be converted into a dormitory for foreign construction workers, residents of the Serangoon Gardens housing estate responded with an online petition, which was signed by 1,600 out of 4,000 households in the immediate vicinity. They cited fears of threats to their security, the possibility of increased crime in the area, and fears about maids hooking up with foreign workers as reasons to object the construction of the dormitory. Therefore these mindsets and prejudices towards foreigners in society reflect intolerance of those with different cultures from the local cultures in society. Lastly, in the competitive world today, the threat to one’s livelihood has made intolerance of the different still prevalent in Singapore. Singapore is seen as a land of opportunities for migrants with skills. Many foreigners are attracted to work or settle in Singapore as they can earn more in Singapore to improve their standards of living. However, many Singaporeans view the increase in the number of foreigners as a threat in terms of competition of jobs and living space. This has led to their discontentment with foreigners. An example of Singaporeans viewing migrant workers, as a threat to their livelihood is evident through a recent incident of the cancelation of the celebration of Philippines Independence Day event in Singapore. Organisers of a planned Philippines Independence Day celebration in Singapore on the 8 June 2014 decided to cancel the event altogether, owing to difficulties in getting an alternative location for the event. The event was supposed to be held at Ngee Ann City Civic Plaza, in Singapore’s shopping district but this had stirred up much unhappiness among Singaporeans as they opposed to the choice of the venue. Some even threatened to resort to violence if the event were to take place. The organisers had to remove a Facebook page about the event after it dew hundreds of anti-Filipino comments. Through these actions and discontentment of Singaporeans towards such events further emphasizes the point that Singaporeans view these foreigners as threats to their lives and are thus unaccepting of the activities they carry out. Therefore, intolerance is still prevalent in the Singapore society. In conclusion, despite efforts made by the government and various activist groups to promote inclusiveness and multiculturalism and reduce intolerance towards marginalized groups of society, intolerance is still widely seen in my society today. This observation is largely attributed to the fact that our essentially conservative Asian society skews our perception of tolerance in order to maintain its position of power.

Manual vs Automatic Transmission Essay Essays

Manual vs Automatic Transmission Essay Essays Manual vs Automatic Transmission Essay Essay Manual vs Automatic Transmission Essay Essay Why are autos with manual transmittals so popular? Besides. what are some of the differences and some of the advantages to driving a auto with a manual transmittal? They are more hard to drive than a auto with an automatic in it. They besides require certain motor accomplishments that you don’t necessitate with an automatic. One could besides take an automatic that is easier to drive and would do your thrust in first-come-first-serve hr traffic more comfy. Peoples who have driven autos with manuals in them know the differences and the advantages of driving one. The driver has more control over the car’s power than they do when driving autos with machine rifles in them. Cars with machine rifles are great to drive around because they don’t necessitate excessively much drive accomplishments. Peoples who don’t truly like to drive normally will take a auto that is automatic. They frequently don’t pay as much attending to the things that are go oning around them while they are driving. They have improved a batch through the old ages with better cogwheel ratios. and the switching response when the driver merely presses on the gas. However. they are non every bit much merriment to drive. That is why race are drivers drive autos with manual transmittals. Cars with manual transmittals are really fuel efficient. They respond better to the driver which makes them safer. Peoples that drive autos with manual transmittals are more focussed on their drive. When the driver down displacements when they are driving to cut down their velocity. they are besides salvaging their brake tablets. Other thing autos with manual transmittals have more power and tend to react better when you accelerate. It besides makes your driving more interesting. Besides race auto drivers drive autos with manual transmittals to take their drive accomplishments to a higher degree for maximal public presentation. Ones personality will do you make up ones mind on which is better for you to drive. My personal sentiment is that autos with manual transmittals are a batch more merriment to drive than machine rifles. Because. autos are made for drive and drive should be merriment.

LIVE CELL IMAGING OF BACTERIAL PATHOGENS BREACHING THE BARRIER OF Dissertation

LIVE CELL IMAGING OF BACTERIAL PATHOGENS BREACHING THE BARRIER OF POLARIZED EPITHELIAL CELLS - Dissertation Example 2.3 Staining with anti-cortactin and phalloidin 15 2.4 Staining with anti-ZO-1 and HOECHST 16 2.5 Extracting GFP and YFP plasmids from C.jejuni for transformations 16 2.6 Transformation of Cj 11168 wt with GFP and YFP plasmids 17 2.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy 18 2.7.1 Specimen preparation for SEM (cultured monolayers) 18 3.0 Results 19 3.1 Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy 19 Staining with anti-ZO-1 and HOESCHT 23 Figure 11 (A-D) HOESCHT stains blue to visualise the nuclei and ZO-1 stains green to visualize the tight junctions 23 3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 24 3.3 Campylobacter jejuni invasion induces cytoskeletal rearrangement 28 3.4 Campylobacter jejuni invasion causes membrane ruffling 28 3.5 Analysis of wild type and DHtrA mutant C. jejuni by electron microscopy 29 3.2 Campylobacter jejuni invasion is time dependent 29 3.3 Campylobacter jejuni invasion induces cytoskeletal rearrangement 29 3.4 Campylobacter jejuni invasion causes membrane ruffling 30 3.5 Analysis of wild type and DHtrA mutant C. jejuni by electron microscopy 30 3.6 Transformation of Cj 11168 wt with GFP and YFP plasmids 30 4.0 Discussion 31 5.0 Conclusion 34 6.0 References 35 Abstract Campylobacter jejuni is a well known pathogenic bacteria commonly transmitted through contaminated food (Oyarzabal, et al., 2012). Its presence in the human intestinal gut causes disease and is one of the leading causes of gastroenteritis in human beings. By crossing the polarized epithelial barrier in the gut, it leads to increased damage to intestinal tissue although the exact mechanism by which it accomplishes this is not yet defined (Boehm, 2011). As such, the research aimed to determine this through a series of infection studies. Results of the manner in which C. jejuni breeches the barrier of polarized epithelial cells was captured through the use of high resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and confocal microscopy, and the results through various strains of the pathogenic bacteria evaluated. The results of the experiments carried out in this study indicated that invasion of an epithelial cell by C. jejuni causes membrane ruffling and cytoskeletal rear rangement. It also shows that invasion by C. jejuni is time dependent and the number of pathogenic bacteria increases with time. It also shows that C. jejuni strains can also undergo transformation with the GFP and YFP in order to ensure genetic diversity and replication. 1.0 Introduction The human gastrointestinal tract has a mucosal cell layer that forms a strong barrier which protects the body from invasion by pathogenic microbes commonly residing in the intestinal lumen (Boehm et al., 2012). This class of bacteria, commonly referred to as enteric pathogenic bacteria, include Salmonella, Shigella, Heliobacter, and Campylobacter among others possess specific properties that enable them to

Counterterrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Counterterrorism - Essay Example immediate measures at once to ensure that terrorism would not happen again, also, and the American government immediately implemented counter-terrorism precautions and laws that would aid them in their fight against terrorism. With this accord, the international community has find itself moving alongside with the American government in its campaign against terrorism. The American government, in connection of its campaign against terrorism and the people that were involved with the attacks, has tracked down the proprietors of the terrorist attacks in World Trade Center and Pentagon, the results of their investigations was that Osama Bin Laden and his terrorist group, Al-Qaeda, was behind the terrorist acts. Soon enough, Bin Laden was named as the world’s â€Å"most wanted criminal† and the American government swiftly launch an attack on Afghanistan were it is believed that the Taliban government hides Bin Laden and the rest of the members of Al-Qaeda. The assault to Afghanistan, as it was called, soon took place and Afghanistan was under American government since then. Aside from this, the American government has convinced other government to pursue hostility against any one who will commit terrorist acts. Countries that are being aided by the United States of America and the country’s original allies (ie. Great Britain) quic kly joined the US in its fight against terrorism and soon afterwards, it seems that counterterrorism was newest trend of the new millennium. However, this paper will not focus its discussion on the attack in Afghanistan or on the war against Iraq; instead it will center on the discussion on the reaction and changes that occurred in the international community after the 9/11 incident. Also, not only will this paper will highlight on the changes outside the US but also the changes within the Bush administration and American government, especially on their immediate steps toward ratifying different laws about counter-terrorism and the